Oncolytic Newcastle disease virus induces autophagy-dependent immunogenic cell death in lung cancer cells
ABSTRACT
In addition to direct oncolysis, oncolytic viruses trigger immunogenic cell death (ICD) and primes antitumor immunity. We have previously shown that oncolytic Newcastle disease virus (NDV), strain FMW (NDV/FMW), induces apoptosis and/or autophagy in cancer cells. In this study, we investigated whether oncolytic NDV can induce ICD in lung cancer cells and whether apoptosis or autophagy plays a role in NDV-triggered ICD. To this end, we examined cell surface expression of calreticulin (CRT) on NDV-infected lung cancer cells and measured ICD determinants, high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), heat shock protein 70/90 (HSP70/90) and ATP in supernatants following viral infection. Flow cytometric analysis using anti-CRT antibody and PI staining of NDV-infected lung cancer cells showed an increase in the number of viable (propidium iodide-negative) cells, suggesting the induction of CRT exposure upon NDV infection. In addition, confocal and immunoblot analysis using anti-CRT antibody showed that an enhanced accumulation of CRT on the cell surface of NDV-infected cells, indicating the translocation of CRT to the cell membrane upon NDV infection. We further demonstrated that NDV infection induced the release of secreted HMGB1 and HSP70/90 by examining the concentrated supernatants of NDV-infected cells. Furthermore, pre-treatment with either the pan-caspase inhibitor z-VAD-FMK or the necrosis inhibitor Necrostain-1, had no impact on NDV-induced release of ICD determinants in lung cancer cells. Rather, depletion of autophagy-related genes in lung cancer cells significantly inhibited the induction of ICD determinants by NDV. Of translational importance, in a lung cancer xenograft model, treatment of mice with supernatants from NDV-infected cells significantly inhibited tumour growth. Together, these results indicate that oncolytic NDV is a potent ICD-inducer and that autophagy contributes to NDV-mediated induction of ICD in lung cancer cells.